Wednesday, March 28, 2012
Sensation and Perception
Contents
•
A brief introduction of Medical Psychology
•
Three stages of recognizing the world: sensing, identifying &
recognizing
•
Sensing: Definition of sensation & perception; Classification,
biological basis of sensation; Sensibility: absolute & difference
threshold; Adaptation
•
Principles of perceptual organization
•
Perceptual identification & recognition
•
Illusion
What is
Psychology
Ø Psych- : soul
Ø A branch of
science for just more than 100 years
Ø To research
and reveal the mechanism of mental phenomena
ü Mental
process: cognition, emotion, and behaviors
ü Personality:
temperament, character, et al.
What is Medical
Psychology?
Ø Not a common
term throughout the whole world
Ø American Psychological Association (APA):
ü A branch of psychology that integrates
somatic and psychotherapeutic modalities into the management of mental illness
and emotional, cognitive, behavioral and substance use disorders.
Ø In China:
ü An
interdisciplinary science of Psychology & Medical Science; Applying
psychological principles to medical practice
Main fields of
Medical Psychology
•
Mental factors and health
ü
Relationship between emotion and health
ü
Relationship between personality and health
•
Stress and health; psychosomatic diseases
•
Mental assessment & mental measurements
•
Abnormal psychology and Psychotherapy
•
About general diseases:
ü
Common mental responses to diseases
ü
Doctor-patient relationship & communication
It is not the
cat in your house!
Ø
Newborn calves are not afraid of tigers.
SENSATION & PERCEPTION
How the world
enters the mind?
3 stages
Sensation,
Ø
The process by which stimulation of sensory receptors produces neural
impulses that represent experiences inside or outside the body.
Ø
The awareness of properties of an object or event when a sensory
receptor is stimulated.
Perception,
The set of processes that
organize information in the sensory image and interpret that information as
having been produced by objects or events in the external world.
SENSATIONS
STAGE Ⅰ: SENSING
Classification
of Sensation
•
External sensations: perceiving and reflecting information of things or
events in external world. According to sense organs:
ü
Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, and Skin senses (tactile, pressure,
warmth, pain)
•
Internal sensations: perceiving and reflecting information of body
itself.
ü
Kinesthetic Sense & Vestibular Sense
pathway of
Sensation
General
physiological pathway of sensation
SOME COMMON SENSATIONS
1. Vision
Ø
Adequate stimulus: visible lights (wavelength 380-780nm)
Ø
Sense Organ: eyes
Ø
Receptors: rods and cones at retina
Ø
Afferent nerve: optic nerve
Ø
Central Nervous System: visual cortex of brain
2. Hearing
Ø
Adequate stimulus: audible sounds (wave frequency 16-20000Hz)
Ø
Sense Organ: ears
Ø
Receptors: hair cells at cochlea
Ø
Afferent nerve: auditory nerve
Ø
Central Nervous System: auditory cortex of brain
3. Smell
Stimuli: Odors
Ø
Sense organ: nose
Ø
Receptors: olfactory cilia
Ø
Afferent nerve: olfactory nerve
ü CNS: olfactory
bulb
ü Olfactory
neurons, unlike most neurons, are constantly dying and being replaced
4. Taste
Ø
The surface of the tongue is covered with papillae
Ø
Taste buds(Taste-receptor cells
ü
Taste buds may be damaged by alcohol, smoke, and acids, but the taste
system is the most resistant to damage of all sensory systems, as taste
receptors are replaced every few days, even more often than smell receptors.
Basic taste
Ø
Four Taste Sensations: sweet, salty, sour, bitter
ü
Most sensitive to bitter, least sensitive to sweet
Ø
Umami Possible fifth taste sensation; “savory” or “meaty” ;brothy taste; monosodium glutamate
5. Touch and
Skin Senses
Ø
Cutaneous senses: pressure, cold, and warmth
Ø
Meissner corpuscles respond best when something rubs against the
skin
Ø
Merkel disks are most active when a small
object exerts steady pressure on the skin; refined tactile sense
Ø
The skin has separate receptors for hot and cold
6. The
Vestibular Senses
Ø To tell how
the body is oriented in the world with respect to gravity through tiny hairs in
fluid-filled sacs and canals in the inner ear
Motion Sickness
Ø Directly related to vestibular system.
Ø Symptoms: Dizziness, fatigue,
nausea, vomiting
Ø Sensory Conflict Theory: Motion sickness occurs
because vestibular system sensations do not match sensations from the eyes and
body.
Ø Medications, relaxation, and
lying down might help.
7. The
Kinesthetic Senses
ØThe
kinesthetic sense provides constant sensory feedback about what the body
is doing during motor activities.
ØTwo sources of
kinesthetic information:
üreceptors in
the joints
üreceptors in
muscles and tendons
The Kinesthetic
Senses
Ø
Receptors in the joints respond to pressures that accompany different positions of the limbs and to pressure
changes that accompany movements
Ø
Receptors in the muscles and tendons respond to changes in tension that
accompany muscle shortening and lengthening
8. Pain
Ø Pain is critical
to survival. People with insensitivity to pain often become scarred and their limbs
deformed from injuries that could have been prevented had they been sensitive
to pain.
Pain mechanisms
Ø
The network of pain receptors is a fine mesh that covers the entire
body. Some receptors respond only to temperature, while others respond to
chemical or mechanical stimuli.
Ø
Pain impulses start at the spinal cord, are relayed to the thalamus,
and then to the cerebral cortex
Psychology of
Pain
Ø
Important factors affecting determining how much pain is experienced:
ü Emotional responses, context
factors, and subjective interpretation
Ø
Psychological processes influencing pain responses:
ü Hypnosis , deep relaxation, and
thought distraction.
The Gate-control theory
Ø Cells in the spinal
cord act as neurological gates, interrupting and blocking some pain signals and
letting others through to the brain. The brain and receptors in the skin send
messages to the spinal cord to open or close the gates.
MEASUREMENT OF SENSIBILITY
Sensibility of
sense organs
Ø Threshold:
ü Absolute threshold
ü Difference threshold
Absolute threshold,
Ø
The smallest, weakest stimulus energy that the organism can
detect
Ø
Operationally defined as the stimulus level at which a sensory input is
detected half of the
time
Absolute
thresholds of some sensations
Difference
threshold,
Ø
The smallest physical difference between two stimuli that can still be
recognized as a difference
Ø
Operationally defined as the point at which the stimuli are recognized
as different half of the time
Just Noticeable
Difference, JND
Ø The difference threshold value:
ü The smallest amount of change
in a stimulus that can be detected half the time
Weber’s Law
Ø JND is proportional to the
magnitude of the stimulus.
Ø The JND between stimuli(⊿ I) is a constant fraction (K)of the intensity of
the standard stimulus(I)
ü The larger the stimulus the
larger the change must be to be noticed.
Response Bias
Ø The systematic tendency for an observer to favor
responding in a particular way that is unrelated to the qualities of the
sensory stimulus.
ü e.g., tending to say “yes” or
“no” all of the time.
Ø There are at least three
sources of response bias: Desire, Expectation & Habit.
Signal
Detection Theory, SDT.
Ø
A systematic approach to the problem of response bias
Ø
Focuses on the process of making a judgment about the presence or
absence of a stimulus, especially in uncertain situation.
The four
possible types of response in SDT
SDT &
Payoff Matrix
Ø Payoff Matrix: the combination of rewards
and penalties for correct and incorrect decisions. If the Payoff Matrix
changes, then the person’s pattern of responses will also change.
ü One dollar for each Hit and no penalty for a False Alarm: it is in one's best
interest to say that the stimulus was present whenever there is uncertainty.
ü Losing two dollars for each False Alarm: it is better for the
observer to be cautious in saying that a stimulus occurred.
SDT
Ø Unlike classical psychophysics
which conceptualized a single absolute threshold, SDT identifies two distinct processes in sensory detection:
ü Sensory Processes: reflecting an observer’s
sensitivity to the stimulus
ü Decision Processes: reflecting an observer’s
response bias to the stimulus
Adaptation : Sensitivity changing
Ø Entering a room full of
fragrant orchids and getting used to the sweet smell.
ü Associating with people of
noble character accustoms one to good ways.
Ø Staying in a fish market and
getting used to the stink.
ü Long exposure to bad
surroundings or bad company accustoms one to evil ways.
Adaptation
ØSensory Adaptation is the diminishing responsiveness of sensory systems to prolonged stimulus input.
üSensory systems are more sensitive to
change in stimulus input than to steady input.
Dark &
Light Adaptation
Ø
Increased retinal sensitivity to light after entering the dark
Ø
Similar to going from daylight into a dark movie theater
Adaptation
ranks
ØFrom easy to
difficult:
üWarmth
üTouch &
pressure
üSmell
üHearing
üPain
PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
STAGE Ⅱ: ORGANIZING
Perceptual
organization
ØPerceptual
organization refers to the internal representation of an object.
Selective
Attention
Ø
The mind has a limited capacity to process information. The brain’s limited
processing capacity makes it impossible to attend to everything and makes the
filtering of information to the brain necessary
Ø
Filter Theory of Attention: filtering occurs early in the
process, before the input’s meaning is
assessed
Dealing with
Ø
Information that is not attended to will not make its presence known,
unless it is very distinct or personally relevant.
Ø
The cocktail party phenomenon;
ü
When an individual hears their own name mentioned across a noisy room
although the individual is participating in an unrelated conversation. Thus,
even information to which an individual is not attending is processed to some
extent.
Organizational
Processes
ØPutting
sensory information together to give the perception of coherence.
ØWhat a person
experiences as a result of these processes is called a percept
Figure & Ground
Ø
Figure: an object in the foreground of the visual field
Ø
Ground : the background against which the object is seen
Gestalt Principles
Gestalt
psychology,
ØA theory of
mind and brain that proposes that the operational principle of the brain is
holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies; or, that the
whole is different than the sum of its parts.
The Gestalt
effect
ØThe Gestalt
effect refers to the form-forming capability of our senses, particularly with
respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a
collection of simple lines and curves.
1. The Law of Proximity
ØAll else being equal,
the nearest elements are grouped together
2. The Law of
Similarity
Ø All else being equal,
the most similar elements are grouped together
3. The law of
closure
4. The law of
good continuation
5. The Law of Pragnanz
Ø
a general law that states that individuals perceive the simplest
organization that fits the stimulus pattern
6. The Law of Common
Fate
ØAll else being equal,
elements moving in the same direction and at the same rate of speed are grouped
together
Perceptual
Constancies
ØPerceptual
constancy refers to the tendency to see the world as invariant, constant, and
stable, DESPITE changes in the stimulation of sensory receptors
üSize, shape
, lightness, color, distance, and location constancy
Size and shape
constancy
Ø
Size constancy refers to the ability to perceive the true size of an object despite
variations in the size of its retinal image
Ø
Shape constancy refers to the ability to perceive correctly an object’s actual
shape, even when the object is slanted away from the viewer, making the shape
of the retinal image substantially different from that of the object itself
Shape constancy
Ø
When a door is open, its image actually forms a trapezoid. Shape
constancy is indicated by the fact that it is still perceived as a rectangle.
Size constancy
Square A is exactly the same color as
square B. No kidding.
TWO TYPES OF PERCEPTIONS
1. Motion
Perception
Ø Motion perception requires
comparison across different fixations of the
world and is dependent on reference frame
Ø Induced motion occurs when a stationary object
appears to be moving because a reference frame to which it is being compared is
moving.
ü There is a tendency for the
visual system to take a larger, surrounding figure as the reference frame for a
smaller figure inside it.
Phi phenomenon
Ø
The simplest form of apparent motion is the phi phenomenon, which occurs
when two stationary spots of light are turned on and off alternately very
quickly. It appears that a single light is moving back and forth between the
two spots of light.
Phi phenomenon
Ø Temporal
interval between fluorescent lamp a and b:
ü Shorter than
30ms (milliseconds), a and b emerging at the same time
ü Longer than 200ms, b
after a
ü 60ms or so, a
light moves from a to b
Illusory
Motion:
ØFrom still
images, the brain perceives fluid motion.
üA movie or
television: no actual motion occurs on the screen.
How does movie
works?
Ø
A motion picture is a series of still pictures flashed very rapidly on
the screen, at the rate of 24 frames per second. Each picture varies slightly
from the one preceding it. Similarly, when you watch television, you are seeing
a series of 30 still images per second.
2. Depth
Perception
Ø
Depth perception requires that the visual system extract three-dimensional
representations from two-dimensional information
Ø
Vision relies on depth cues that allow the interpretation of sensory input
MONOCULAR CUES
Depth cues
Motion parallax
Ø
When an observer moves, the apparent relative motion of
several stationary objects against a background gives hints about their
relative distance.
Ø
This effect can be seen clearly when driving in a car nearby things pass quickly,
while far off objects appear stationary.
Depth from
motion,
Ø
A form of depth from motion, kinetic depth perception, is determined
by dynamically changing object size.
Ø
As objects in motion become smaller, they appear to recede into the
distance or move farther away; objects in motion that appear to be getting
larger seem to be coming closer.
Perspective ,
Ø
The property of parallel lines converging at infinity allows us
to reconstruct the relative distance of two parts of an object, or of landscape
features.
ü
Relative size: An automobile that is close to us looks larger than one that is far
away.
Aerial
perspective
Ø Due to light
scattering by the atmosphere, objects that are a great distance away have lower
luminance contrast and lower color
saturation
ü As the
distance between an object and a viewer increases, the contrast between the
object and its background decreases. The contrast of any markings or details on
the object also decreases. The colors of the object also become less saturated
and shift towards blue
Occlusion
Ø
Occlusion (blocking the sight) of objects by others is also a clue which
provides information about relative distance.
Texture gradient
Ø Suppose you are standing on a
gravel road.
ü The gravel near you can be
clearly seen in terms of shape, size and color.
ü As your vision shifts towards
the distant road the texture cannot be clearly differentiated.
BINOCULAR CUES
Depth cues
Retinal
disparity
Ø
If an object is far away, the disparity of that image falling on both retinas will be small.
Ø
If the object is close or near, the disparity will be large.
Ø
It is stereopsis that tricks people into thinking they perceive depth
when viewing 3D movies and stereoscopic photos.
Convergence
Ø
Also an oculomotor cue
Ø
By virtue of stereopsis the two eye balls focus on the same object.
In doing so they converge. The convergence will stretch the
extraocular muscles. Kinesthetic sensations from these extraocular muscles
help in depth/distance perception.
Ø
The angle of convergence is larger when the eye is fixating on far away
objects.
IDENTIFICATION & RECOGNITION PROCESSES
Stage Ⅲ: Identifying &
Recognizing
Bottom-Up
Process
Ø
Also called data-driven processing.
Ø
Bottom-up processing is taking sensory data into the system and sending
it upward for extraction and analysis of relevant information.
ü
It is anchored in empirical reality and deals with bits of information
and the transformation of concrete, physical features of stimuli into abstract
representations.
Bottom-top process
Top-down
process
Ø
Also called hypothesis-driven processing.
Ø
Top-down processing is when past experiences, knowledge, motivations,
cultural background, and expectations affect perception, as higher mental
functioning influences how objects and events are understood.
Ø
An example of top-down processing: Even though the second letter in each
word is ambiguous, top down processing allows for easy disambiguation based on
the context.
THE INFLUENCE
ØObject
identification is a constructive, interpretive process.
ØExpectations
can influence hypotheses about what is out there in the world and can influence
what is actually perceived.
Context,
Ø
It takes longer to recognize an object when it is seen in the wrong
context, not in a familiar place
An explanation:
Set
Ø Set is a
temporary readiness to perceive or react to a stimulus in a particular way.
There are three types of sets: motor, mental, and perceptual.
ü A perceptual set
is a readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context
ü A mental set
is a readiness to deal with a situation, such as a problem-solving task or
game, in a way determined by learned rules, instructions, expectations, or
habitual tendencies.
ü A motor set
is a readiness to make a quick, prepared response
Illusions &
Hallucination
ØIllusion: Misleading
or distorted perceptions of stimuli that actually exists
ØHallucination: When people
perceive objects or events that have no external basis in reality
Final Lessons
Ø
A perceptual experience in response to a stimulus event is determined not
only by the stimulus but also by the person experiencing it.
Ø
In addition to sensation, final
perception depends on past experience, expectations, wants, goals, values, and
imagination.
Final lessons
Ø
A proper balance of top-down and bottom-up processing achieves the basic
goal of perception: to experience what is out there in a way that maximally
serves your needs as a biological and social being, moving about and adapting
to your physical and social environment.
Summary
•
Terms: Psychology & Medical Psychology; sensation and perception;
absolute and difference threshold; response bias
•
Some common sensations and two kinds of perceptions
•
Principles of perceptual organizations
•
Two types of identifying and recognizing processes: bottom-top &
top-down processes
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